Flight Control Systems free essay sample

Assessment †¢ Coursework: 20%; †¢ Examination: 2 hours; attempt 3 from 5 questions; 80% of the ? nal mark. 1. 4. 4 Lecture plan †¢ Overall ? ight envelope †¢ Flight control systems †¢ Modern control design methodology †¢ The introduction of the course– structure, assessment, exercises, references 1. Introduction 2. Response to the controls (a) State space analysis (b) Longitudinal response to elevator and throttle (c) Transient response to aileron and rudder 3. Aircraft stability augmentation systems 1. 4. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE (a) Performance evaluation †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ stability Time domain requirements Frequency domain speci? ations Robustness 11 (b) Longitudinal Stability Augmentation Systems †¢ Choice of the feedback variables †¢ Root locus and gain determination †¢ Phugoid suppress (c) Lateral stability augmentation systems †¢ Roll feedback for aileron control †¢ Yaw rate feedback for rudder contr ol 4. Simple autopilot design †¢ Augmented longitudinal dynamics †¢ Height hold systems 5. Handling Qualities (a) Time delay systems (b) Pilot-in-loop dynamics (c) Handling qualities (d) Frequency domain analysis (e) Pilot induced oscillation 6. Flight Control system implementation Fly-by-wire technique 1. 4. 5 References 1. Flight Dynamics Principles. M. V. Cook. 1997. Arnold. Chaps. 4,5,6,7,10,11 2. Automatic Flight Control Systems. D. McLean. 1990. Prentice Hall International Ltd. Chaps. 2, 3,6,9. 3. Introduction to Avionics Systems. Second edition. R. P. G. Collinson. 2003. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Chap. 4 12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Chapter 2 Longitudinal response to the control 2. 1 Longitudinal dynamics From Flight Dynamics course, we know that the linearised longitudinal dynamics can be written as mu ? ? ? X ? X ? X ? X u? w? ? w + (mWe ? )q + mg? cos ? e ? u ? w ? ?w ? q ? Z ? Z ? Z ? Z ? u + (m ? )w ? ? w ? (mUe + )q + mg? sin ? e ? u ? w ? ?w ? q ? M ? M ? M ? M u? w? ? w + Iy q ? ? q ? ?u ? w ? ?w ? q = = = ? X ? t ? Z ? t ? M ? t (2. 1) (2. 2) (2. 3) The physical meanings of the variables are de? ned as u: Perturbation about steady state velocity Ue w: Perturbation on steady state normal velocity We q: Pitch rate ? : Pitch angle Under the assumption that the aeroplane is in level straight ? ight and the reference axes are wind or stability axes, we have ? e = We = 0 (2. 4) The main controls in longitudinal dynamics are the elevator angle and the engine trust. The small perturbation terms in the right side of the above equations can be expressed as ? X ? t ? Z ? t ? M ? t where 13 = = = ? X ? X ? e + ? e ?Z ? Z ? e + ? e ?M ? M ? e + ? e (2. 5) (2. 6) (2. 7) 14 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL ? e : the elevator de? ection (Note ? is used in Appendix 1) ? : engine thrust perturbation Substituting the above expression into the longitudinal symmetric motion yields ? X ? X ? X ? X u? w? ? w? q + mg? ?u ? w ? ?w ? q ? Z ? Z ? Z ? Z ? u + (m ? )w ? ? w ? (mUe + )q ? u ? w ? ?w ? q ? M ? M ? M ? M u? w? ? w + Iy q ? ? q ? ?u ? w ? ?w ? q mu ? ? = = = ? X ? X ? e + ? e ?Z ? Z ? e + ? e ?M ? M ? ?e + e (2. 8) (2. 9) (2. 10) After adding the relationship ? ? = q, (2. 11) Eqs. (2. 8)- (2. 11) can be put in a more concise vector and matrix format. The longitudinal dynamics can be written as ? m ? 0 ? ? 0 0 ? ?X ? w ? ?Z m ? ?w ? ? ? M ? w ? 0 0 0 Iy 0 u ? 0 0 w ? ? 0 q ? ? 1 ? ? ? = ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?X ? u ? Z ? u ? M ? u ? X ? w ? Z ? w ? M ? w ? Z ? q ? X ? q + mUe ?M ? q 0 0 ?X e ? Z e ? M e 0 ?X ?Z ?M ? ? ? ? 1 ?mg u 0 w 0 q ? 0 ? ? ?+ ? ?e ? (2. 12) 0 Put all variables in the longitudinal dynamics in a vector form as ? ? u ? w ? ? X=? ? q ? ? and let m ? ?X ? w ? ? 0 m ? ?Z ? ?w ? = ? 0 ? ?M ? w ? 0 ? ?X ? X ? = ? ? ? B ? = ? ? ? u ? Z ? u ? M ? u ? w ? Z ? w ? M ? w ? Z ? q (2. 13) ? M 0 0 Iy 0 ?X ? q ? 0 0 ? ? 0 ? 1 (2. 14) ? ?mg 0 ? ? 0 ? 0 A + mUe ?M ? q (2. 15) 0 0 ?X e ? Z e ? M e 0 ?X ?Z ?M ? ? ? ? 1 (2. 16) 0 U= ?e ? (2. 17) 2. 1. LONGITUDINAL DYNAMICS Equation (2. 12) becomes 15 ? MX = A X + B U (2. 18) It is custom to convert the above set of equations into a set of ? rs t order di? erential equations by multiplying both sides of the above equation by the inverse of the matrix M , i. e. , M ? 1 . Eq. (2. 18) becomes ? ? ? ? ? ? u ? xu xw xq x? x? e x? u ? w ? ? zu zw zq z? ? ? w ? ? z? z? ? ? e ? ? ? =? ? ? ? (2. 19) ? q ? ? mu mw mq m? ? ? q ? + ? m? e m? ? ? ? ? ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 ? Let xu ? zu A = M ? 1 A = ? ? mu 0 ? ? xw zw mw 0 xq zq mq 1 ? x? z? ? ? m? ? 0 (2. 20) and x? e ? z? e B = M ? 1 B = ? ? m ? e 0 ? x? z? ? ? m? ? 0 (2. 21) It can be written in a concise format ? X = AX + BU (2. 22) Eq. (2. 22) with (2. 20) and (2. 21) is referred as the state space model of the linearised longitudinal dynamics of aircraft. Appendix 1 gives the relationship between the new stability and control derivatives in the matrix A and B, i. e. xu , so on, with the dimensional and non-dimensional derivatives, where ? X ? Xu = ? u (2. 23) denotes dimensional derivative and Xu its corresponding non-dimensional derivative. These relationships are derived based on the Cramer’s rule and hold for general body axes. In the case when the derivatives are referred to wind axes, as in this course, the following simpli? cations should be made Ue = Vo , We = 0, sin ? e = 0, cos ? e = 1 (2. 24) The description of the longitudinal dynamics in the matrix-vector format as in (2. 19) can be extended to represent all general dynamic systems. Consider a system with order n, i. e. , the system can be described by n order di? rential equation (as it will be explained later, this is the same as the highest order of the denominator polynomial in the transfer function is n). In the representation (2. 22), A ? Rn? n is the system matrix ; B ? Rn? m is the input matrix ; X ? Rn is the state vector or state variables and U ? Rm the input or input vector. The equation (2. 22) is called state equation. For the stabilit y augmentation system, only the in? uence of the variation of the elevator angle, i. e. the primary aerodynamic control surface, is concerned. The above equations of motion can be simpli? ed. The state space representation remains the 6 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL same format as in eq. (2. 22) with the same matrix A and state variables but with a di? erent B and input U as given below ? ? x ? e ? z ? B = M ? 1 B = ? ?e ? (2. 25) ? m? e ? 0 and U = ? e (2. 26) Remark: It should be noticed that in di? erent textbooks, di? erent notations are used. For the state space representation of longitudinal dynamics, sometime widetilded derivatives are used as follows ? ? 1 ? X 1 ? X ? ? 1 ? X ? ? 0 ? g u ? u m ? u m ? w m e 1 ? Z 1 ? Z 1 ? Z ? w ? ? 0 ? ? w ? ? m e ? ?+? ? ? ? = ? m ? u m ? w Ue ? ? e (2. 27) ? q ? Mu ? Mw Mq 0 ? ? q ? ? M? e ? ? ? ? 0 0 1 0 0 where Mu = Mw = 1 ? M 1 ? Z 1 ? M + ? Iyy ? u m ? u Iyy ? w ? 1 ? M 1 ? Z 1 ? M + ? Iyy ? w m ? w Iyy ? w ? 1 ? M 1 ? M + Ue ? Iyy ? q Iyy ? w ? (2. 28) (2. 29) (2. 30) (2. 31) Mq = M? e = 1 ? M 1 ? Z 1 ? M + ? Iyy e m e Iyy ? w ? The widetilded derivatives and the other derivatives in the matrices are the same as the expression of the small letter derivatives under certain assumptions, i. e. using stability axis. 2. 2 2. 2. 1 State space description State variables A minimum set of variables which, when known at time t0 , together with the input, are su? ient to describe the behaviours of the system at any time t gt; t0 . State variables may have no any physical meanings and may be not measurable. For the longitudinal dynamic of aircraft, there are four state variables, i. e, ? ? u ? w ? ? X=? (2. 32) ? q ? ? and one input or control variable, the elevator de? ection, U = ? e (2. 33) 2. 3. LONGITUDINAL STATE SPACE MODEL Thus n=4 m=1 17 (2. 34) The system matrix and input matrix of the longitudinal dynamics are given by ? ? xu xw xq x? ? z zw zq z? ? ? A = M ? 1 A = ? u (2. 35) ? mu mw mq m? ? 0 0 1 0 and ? x? e ? z ? B = M ? 1 B = ? ?e ? ? m ? e ? 0 ? (2. 36) respectively. . 2. 2 General state space model w Ue When the angle of attack ? is of concern, it can be written as ? = which can be put into a general form as y = CX where y=? = and C= 0 1/Ue 0 0 (2. 40) Eq. (2. 38) is called Output equation; y the output variable and C the output matrix. For more general case where there are more than one output and has a direct path from input to output variable, the output equation can be written as Y = CX + DU (2. 41) w Ue (2. 38) (2. 39) (2. 37) where Y ? Rr ,C ? Rr? n and D ? Rr? m . For motion of aerospace vehicles including aircraft and missiles, there is no direct path between input and output. In this course only the case D = 0 is considered if not explicitly pointed out. Eq. (2. 22) and (2. 38) (or (2. 41)) together represent the state space description of a dynamic system, which is opposite to the transfer function representation of a dynamic system studied in Control Engineering course. 2. 3 Longitudinal state space model When the behaviours of all the state variables are concerned, all those variables can be chosen as output variables. In addition, there are other response quantities of interest including the ? ight path angle ? , the angle of attack ? and the normal acceleration az (nz ). Putting all variables together, the output vector can be written as 18 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL ? ? ? ? ? Y =? ? ? ? ? Invoking the relationships ? = ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? u w q ? ? ? az w Ue (2. 42) (2. 43) w Ue (2. 44) the ? ight path angle ? = = and the normal acceleration az (nz ) az = = = ?Z/m = ? (Zu u + Zw w + Zq q + Zw w + Z? e ? e )/m ? ? ? (w ? qUe ) ? ?zu u ? zw w ? zq q ? z? e ? e + Ue zq (2. 45) where the second equality substituting the expression matrix is given by ? ? ? u 1 ? w ? ? 0 ? ? ? ? q ? ? 0 ? ? ? Y =? ? ? =? 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 0 az ? zu ollows from (2. 9) and the last equality is obtained by of w in its concise derivative format. Hence the output ? 0 1 0 0 1/Ue ? 1/Ue ? zw 0 0 1 0 0 0 ? zq + Ue 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? u ? ? ? w ? ? +? q ? ? ? ? ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? z? e ? ? ? ? ? ? ? e ? ? ? ? (2. 46) There is a direct path between the output and input! The state space model of longitudinal dynamics consists of (2. 2 2) and (2. 46). 2. 3. 1 Numerical example Boeing 747 jet transport at ? ight condition cruising in horizontal ? ight at approximately 40,000 ft at Mach number 0. 8. Relevant data are given in Table 2. 1 and 2. 2. Using tables in Appendix 1, the concise small derivatives can be calculated and then the system matrix and input matrix can be derived as ? ? ? 0. 006868 0. 01395 0 ? 32. 2 ? ?0. 09055 ? ?0. 3151 774 0 ? A=? (2. 47) ? 0. 0001187 ? 0. 001026 ? 0. 4285 ? 0 0 0 1 0 ? ? ? 0. 000187 ? ?17. 85 ? ? B=? (2. 48) ? ?1. 158 ? 0 Similarly the parameters matrices in output equation (2. 46) can be determined. It should be noticed that English unit(s) is used in this example. 2. 4. AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR SIMULATION USING STATE SPACE MODELS19 Table 2. 1: Boeing 747 transport data 636,636lb (2. 83176 ? 106 N) 5500 ft2 (511. m2 ) 27. 31 ft (8. 324 m) 195. 7 ft (59. 64 m) 0. 183 ? 108 slug ft2 (0. 247 ? 108 kg m2 ) 0. 331 ? 108 slug ft2 (0. 449 ? 108 kg m2 ) 0. 497 ? 108 slug ft2 (0. 673 ? 108 kg m2 ) -0. 156 ? 107 slug ft2 (-0. 212 ? 107 kg m2 ) 774 ft/s (235. 9m/s) 0 5. 909 ? 10? 4 slug/ft3 (0. 3045 kg/m3 ) 0. 654 0. 0430 W S c ? b Ix Iy Iz Izx Ue ? 0 ? CL0 CD Table 2. 2: Dimensional Derivativesà ¢â‚¬â€œ B747 jet X(lb) Z(lb) M(ft. lb) u(f t/s) ? 1. 358 ? 102 ? 1. 778 ? 103 3. 581 ? 103 w(f t/s) 2. 758 ? 102 ? 6. 188 ? 103 ? 3. 515 ? 104 q(rad/sec) 0 ? 1. 017 ? 105 ? 1. 122 ? 107 2 w(f t/s ) ? 0 1. 308 ? 102 -3. 826 ? 103 5 ? e (rad) -3. 17 ? 3. 551 ? 10 ? 3. 839 ? 107 2. 3. 2 The choice of state variables The state space representation of a dynamic system is not unique, which depends on the choice of state variables. For engineering application, state variables, in general, are chosen based on physical meanings, measurement, or easy to design and analysis. For the longitudinal dynamics, in additional to a set of the state variables in Eq. (2. 32), another widely used choice (in American) is ? u ? ? ? ? X=? ? q ? ? ? (2. 49) Certainly, when the logitudinal dynamics of the aircraft are represented in terms of the above state variables, di? rent A, B and C are resulted (see Tutorial 1). 2. 4 Aircraft dynamic behaviour simulation using state space models State space model develo ped above provides a very powerful tool in investigate dynamic behavious of an aircraft under various condition. The idea of using state pace models for predicting aircraft dynamic behavious or numerical simulation can be explained by 20 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL the following expression X(t + ? t) = X(t) + dX(? ) ? |? =t ? t = X(t) + X(t)? t d? (2. 50) ? where X(t) is current state, ? t is step size and X(t) is the derivative calculated by the state space equation. . 4. 1 Aircraft response without control ? X = AX X(0) = X0 (2. 51) 2. 4. 2 Aircraft response to controls ? X = AX + BU ; X(0) = 0 (2. 52) where U is the pilot command 2. 4. 3 Aircraft response under both initial conditions and controls ? X = AX + BU ; X(0) = X0 (2. 53) 2. 5 Longitudinal response to the elevator After the longitudinal dynamics are described by the state space model, the time histories of all the variables of interests can be calculated. For example, the time responses of the forward velocity u, normal velocity w (angle of attack) and ? ight path angle ? under the step movement of the levator are displayed in Fig 2. 1–2. 5 Discussion: If the reason for moving the elevator is to establish a new steady state ? ight condition, then this control action can hardly be viewed as successful. The long lightly damped oscillation has seriously interfered with it. A good operation performance cannot be achieved by simply changing the angle of elevator. Clearly, longitudinal control, whether by a human pilot or automatic pilot, demands a more sophisticated control activity than open-loop strategy. 2. 6 Transfer of state space models into transfer functions Taking Laplace transform on both sides of Eq. (2. 2) under the zero initial assumption yields sX(s) = Y (s) = where X(s) = L{X(t)}. AX(s) + BU (s) CX(s) (2. 54) (2. 55) 2. 6. TRANSFER OF STATE SPACE MODELS INTO TRANSFER FUNCTIONS21 Step response to elevator: Velocity 90 80 70 60 Velocity(fps) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time(s) 6 7 8 9 10 Figure 2. 1: Longitudinal response to the elevator Step response to evelator: angle of attack 0 ?0. 005 ?0. 01 Angle of attack(rad) ?0. 015 ?0. 02 ?0. 025 ?0. 03 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time(s) 6 7 8 9 10 22 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL Step respnse to elevator: Flight path angle 0. 1 0. 08 0. 06 0. 04 Flight path angle (rad) 0. 02 0 0. 02 ?0. 04 ?0. 06 ?0. 08 ?0. 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time(s) 6 7 8 9 10 Figure 2. 2: Longitudinal response to the elevator Step Response to elevator: long term 90 80 70 60 Velocity (fps) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 Time (s) 400 500 600 Figure 2. 3: Longitudinal response to the elevator 2. 6. TRANSFER OF STATE SPACE MODELS INTO TRANSFER FUNCTIONS23 Step response to elevator: long term 0 ?0. 005 ?0. 01 Angle of attack (rad) ?0. 015 ?0. 02 ?0. 025 ?0. 03 0 100 200 300 Time (s) 400 500 600 Figure 2. 4: Longitudinal response to the elevator Step response to elevator: long term 0. 1 0. 08 0. 06 0. 04 Flight path angle (rad) 0. 02 0 ?0. 2 ?0. 04 ?0. 06 ?0. 08 ?0. 1 0 100 200 300 Time (s) 400 500 600 Figure 2. 5: Longitudinal response to the elevator 24 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL Y (s) = C[sI ? A]? 1 BU (s) Hence the transfer function of the state space representation is given by G(s) = C[sI ? A]? 1 B = C(Adjoint(sI ? A))B det(sI ? A) (2. 56) (2. 57) Example 1: A short period motion of a aircraft is described by ? ? q ? = ? 0. 334 ? 2. 52 1. 0 ? 0. 387 ? q + ? 0. 027 ? 2. 6 ? e (2. 58) where ? e denotes the elevator de? ection. The transfer function from the elevator de? ection to the angle of attack is determined as follows: ? (s) ? 0. 27s ? 2. 6 = 2 ? e (s) s + 0. 721s + 2. 65 (2. 59) # The longitudinal dynamics of aircraft is a single-input and multi-output system with one input ? e and several outputs, u, w, q, ? , ? , az . Using the technique in Section (2. 6), the transfer functions between each output variable and the input elevator can be derived. The notation u(s) Gue = (2. 60) ? ? e (s) is used in this course to denote the transfer function from input ? e to output u. For the longitudinal dynamics of Boeing 747-100, if the output of interest is the forward velocity, the transfer function can be determined using formula (2. 56) as u(s) ? e (s) ? 0. 00188s3 ? 0. 2491s2 + 24. 68s + 11. 6 s4 + 0. 750468s3 + 0. 935494s2 + 0. 0094630s + 0. 0041959 (2. 61) Gue ? = = Similarly, all other transfer functions can be derived. For a system with low order like the second order system in Example 1, the derivation of the corresponding transfer function from its state space model can be completed manually. For complicated systems with high order, it can be done by computer software like MATLAB. It can be found that although the transfer functions from the elevator to di? erent outputs are di? erent but they have the same denominator, i. e. s4 + 0. 750468s3 + 0. 935494s2 + 0. 0094630s + 0. 041959 for Beoing 747-100. Only the numerators are di? erent. This is because all the de nominators of the transfer functions are determined by det(sI ? A). 2. 6. 1 From a transfer function to a state space model The number of the state variable is equal to the order of the transfer function, i. e. , the order of the denominator of the transfer function. By choosing di? erent state variables, for the same transfer function, di? erent state space models are given. 2. 7. BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF STATE SPACE MODELS 25 2. 7 Block diagram representation of state space models 2. 8 2. 8. 1 Static stability and dynamic modes Aircraft stability Consider aircraft equations of motion represented as ? X = AX + BU (2. 62) The stability analysis of the original aircraft dynamics concerns if there is no any control e? ort,whether the uncontrolled motion is stable. It is also referred as openloop stability in general control engineering. The aircraft stability is determined by the eigenvalues of the system matrix A. For a matrix A, its eigenvalues can be determined by the polynomial det(? I ? A) = 0 (2. 63) Eigenvalues of a state space model are equal to the roots of the characteristic equation of its corresponding transfer function. An aircraft is stable if all eigenvalues of its system matrix have negative real part. It is unstable if one or more eigenvalues of the system matrix has positive real part. Example for a second order system Example 1 revisited 2. 8. 2 Stability with FCS augmentation When a ? ight control system is installed on an aircraft. The command applied on the control surface is not purely generated by a pilot any more; it consists of both the pilot command and the control signal generated by the ? ight control system. It can be written as ? U = KX + U (2. 64) ? where K is the state feedback gain matrix and U is the reference signal or pilot command. The stability of an aircraft under ? ight control systems is refereed as closed-loop stability. 26 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL Then the closed-loop system under the control law is given by ? ? X = (A + BK)X + B U (2. 65) Stability is also determined by the eigenvalues of the system matrix of the system (2. 65), i. e. , A + BK. Sometimes only part of the state variables are available, which are true for most of ? ight control systems, and only these measurable variables are fed back, i. e. output feedback control. It can be written as ? ? U = KY + U = KCX + B U where K is the output feedback gain matrix. Substituting the control U into the state equation yields ? ? X = (A + BKC)X + B U (2. 67) (2. 66) Then the closed-loop stability is determined by the eigenvalues of the matrix A+BKC. Boeing Example (cont. ) Open-loop stability: ? 0. 3719 + 0. 8875i ? 0. 3719 ? 0. 8875i eig(A) = ? 0. 0033 + 0. 0672i ? 0. 0033 ? 0. 0672i (2. 68) Hence the longitudinal dynamics are stable. The same conclusion can be drawn from the the transfer function approach. Since the stability of an open loop system is determined by its poles from denominator of its transfer function, i. e. , s4 +0. 750468s3 + 0. 935494s2 + 0. 0094630s + 0. 041959=0. Its roots are given by s1,2 = ? 0. 3719  ± 0. 8875i s3,4 = ? 0. 0033  ± 0. 0672i (2. 69) (This example veri? es that the eigenvalues of the system matrix are the same as the roots of its characteristic equation! ) 2. 8. 3 Dynamic modes Not only stability but also the dynamic modes of an aircraft can be extracted from the stat space model, more speci? cally from th e system matrix A. Essentially, the determinant of the matrix A is the same as the characteristic equation. Since there are two pairs of complex roots, the denominator can be written in the typical second order system’s format as 2 2 (s2 + 2? ? p s + ? p )(s2 + 2? s ? s s + ? s ) (2. 70) (2. 71) (2. 72) where ? p = 0. 0489 for Phugoid mode and ? s = 0. 3865 for the short period mode. ?s = 0. 9623 ? p = 0. 0673 2. 9. REDUCED MODELS OF LONGITUDINAL DYNAMICS B 747 Phugoid mode 1. 5 27 1 93. 4s 0. 5 Perturbation 0 ? 0. 5 ? 1 0 300 600 Time (s) Figure 2. 6: Phugoid mode of Beoing 747-100 The ? rst second order dynamics correspond to Phugoid mode. This is an oscillad d tion with period T = 1/? p = 1/(0. 0672/2? ) = 93. 4 second where ? p is the damped frequency of the Phugoid mode. The damping ratio for Phugoid mode is very small, i. e. , ? p = 0. 489. As shown in Figure 2. 6, Phugoid mode for Boeing 747-100 at this ? ight condition is a slow and poor damped oscillation. It takes a long time to die away. The second mode in the characteristic equation corresponds to the short period mode in aircraft longitudinal dynamics. As shown in Fig. 2. 7, this is a well damped response with fast period about T = 7. 08 sec. (Note the di? erent time scales in Phugoid and short period response). It dies away very quickly and only has the in? uence at the beginning of the response. 2. 9 Reduced models of longitudinal dynamics Based on the above example, we can ? d Phugoid mode and short period mode have di? erent time scales. Actually all the aircraft have the similar response behaviour as Boeing 747. This makes it is possible to simplify the longitudinal dynamics under certain conditions. As a result, this will simplify following analysis and design. 2. 9. 1 Phugoid approximation The Phugoid mode can be obtained by simplifying the full 4th order longitudinal dynamics. Assumptions: †¢ w and q respond to disturbances in time scale associated with the short period 28 CHAP TER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL Beoing 747 Short period mode From: U(1) 0. 7 0. 6 0. 5 0. 4 Perturbation To: Y(1) 0. 3 0. 2 0. 1 0 ?0. 1 ?0. 2 0 5 10 15 Time (sec. ) Figure 2. 7: Short Period mode of Beoing 747-100 mode; it is reasonable to assume that q is quasi-steady in the longer time scale associated with Phugoid mode; q=0; ? †¢ Mq , Mw , Zq , Zw are neglected since both q and w are relatively small. ? ? ? Then from the table in Appendix 1, we can ? nd the expression of the small concise derivatives under these assumptions. The longitudinal model reduces to ? ? ? Xu Xw ? ? X? e ? 0 ? g u ? u m m m Zw ? w ? ? Zu Ue 0 ? ? w ? ? Z? e ? m m ? ? ? =? M ? + ? M ? ?e (2. 73) ? m ? ? 0 ? ? u Mw 0 0 ? q ? ? ? e ? Iyy Iyy Iyy ? ? ? 0 0 1 0 0 This is not a standard state space model. However using the similar idea in Section 2. 6, by taking Laplace transform on the both sides of the equation under the assumption that X0 = 0, the transfer function from the control surface to any chosen output variable can be derived. The characteristic equation (the denominator polynomial o f a transfer function) is given by ? (s) = As2 + Bs + C where A = ? Ue Mw Ue B = gMu + (Xu Mw ? Mu Xw ) m g C = (Zu Mw ? Mu Zw ) m (2. 75) (2. 76) (2. 77) (2. 74) 2. 9. REDUCED MODELS OF LONGITUDINAL DYNAMICS 29 This corresponds to the ? st mode (Phugoid mode) in the full longitudinal model. After substituting data for Beoing 747 in the formula, the damping ratio and the natural frequency are given by ? = 0. 068, ? n = 0. 0712 (2. 78) which are slightly di? erent from the true values, ? p = 0. 049, ? p = 0. 0673, obtained from the full 4th longitudinal dynamic model. 2. 9. 2 Short period approximation In a short period after actuation of the elevator, the speed is substantially constant while the airplane pitches relatively rapidly. Assumptions: †¢ u=0 †¢ Zw (compared with m) and Zq (compared with mUe ) are neglected since they ? are relatively small. w ? q ? Zw m mw Ue mq w q + Z ? e m m ? e ?e (2. 79) The characteristic equation is given by s2 ? ( Zw 1 1 Mq Zw + (Mq + Mw Ue ))s ? (Ue Mw ? )=0 ? m Iyy Iyy m (2. 80) Using the data for B747-100, the result obtained is s2 + 0. 741s + 0. 9281 = 0 with roots s1,2 = ? 0. 371  ± 0. 889i The corresponding damping ratio and natural frequency are ? = 0. 385 wn = 0. 963 (2. 83) (2. 82) (2. 81) which are seen to be almost same as those obtained from the full longitudinal dynamics. Actually the short period approximation is very good for a wide range of vehicle characteristics and ? ight conditions. Tutorial 1 1. Using the small concise derivatives, ? d the state equations of longitudinal dynamics of an aircraft with state variables ? ? u ? ? ? ? X=? (2. 84) ? q ? ? 30 CHAPTER 2. LONGITUDINAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROL Normal acceleration at the pilot seat is a very important quantity, de? ned as the normal acceleration response to an elevator measured at the pilot seat, i. e. aZx = w ? Ue q ? lx q ? ? (2. 85) where lx is the distance from c. g. to the pilot seat. When the outputs of interest are pitch angle ? an d the normal acceleration at the pilot seat, ? nd the output equations and identify all the associated parameter matrices and dimension of variables (state, input and output). . The motion of a mass is governed by m? (t) = f (t) x (2. 86) where m is mass, f (t) the force acting on the mass and x(t) the displacement. When the velocity x(t) and the velocity plus the position x(t) + x(t) are chosen ? ? as state variables, and the position is chosen as output variable, ? nd the state space model of the above mass system. Determine the transfer function from the state space model and compare it with the transfer function directly derived from the dynamic model in Eq. (2. 86). 3. Find the transfer function from elevator de? ection ? e to pitch rate q in Example 1. Determine the natural frequency and damping ratio of the short period dynamics. Is it possible to ? nd these information from a state space model directly, instead of using the transfer function approach? 4. Suppose that the control strategy ? ?e = ? + 0. 1q + ? e (2. 87) ? is used for the aircraft in Example 1 where ? e is the command for elevator de? ection from the pilot. Determine stability of the short period dynamics under the above control law using both state space method and Routh stability criterion in Control Engineering (When Routh stability criterion is applied, you can study the stability using the transfer function from ? to q or that from ? e to ? (why? )). Compare and discuss the results achieved. Chapter 3 Lateral response to the controls 3. 1 Lateral state space models mv ? ?Y v ? ( ? Y + mWe )p ? ?v ? p ? mUe )r ? mg? cos ? e ? mg? sin ? e ? L ? L ? L ? v + Ix p ? ? p ? Ixz r ? ? r ? v ? p ? r ? N ? N ? N v ? Ixz p ? ? p + Iz r ? ? r ? ?v ? p ? r = = = ? Y ? A + A ? L ? A + A ? N ? A + A ? Y ? R R ? L ? R R ? N ? R R (3. 1) (3. 2) (3. 3) Referred to body axes, the small perturbed lateral dynamics are described by ? ( ? Y ? r where the physical meanings of the variables are de? ed as v: Lateral velocity perturbation p: Roll rate perturbation r: Yaw rate perturbation ? : Roll angle perturbation ? : Yaw angle perturbation ? A : Aileron angle (note that it is denoted by ? in Appendix 1) ? R : Rudder angle (note that it is denoted by ? in Appendix 1) Together with the relationships ? ?=p and ? ? = r, (3. 4) (3. 5) the lateral dynamics can be described by ? ve equations, (3. 1)-(3. 5). Treating them in the same way as in the longitudinal dynamics and after introducing the concise notation as in Appendix 1, these ? ve equations can be represented as ? ? ? ? ? ? v ? p ? r ? ? ? ? ? ? yv lv nv 0 0 yp lp np 1 0 yr lr nr 0 1 y? 0 0 0 0 y? 0 0 0 0 v p r ? ? ? ? y? A l? A n ? A 0 0 y? R l? R n ? R 0 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? A ? R (3. 6) ? ? ? ? ?=? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?+? ? ? ? ? 31 32 CHAPTER 3. LATERAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROLS When the derivatives are referred to airplane wind axes, ? e = 0 (3. 7) from Appendix 1, it can be seen that y? = 0. Thus all the elements of the ? fth column in the system matrix are zero. This implies that ? has no in? uence on all other variables. To simplify analysis, in most of the cases, the following fourth order model is used ? ? ? ? ? v ? v y? A y? R yv yp yr y? ? p ? ? lv lp lr 0 ? ? p ? ? l? A l? R ? ?A ? ? ? ? ? ? =? (3. 8) ? r ? ? n v n p n r 0 ? ? r ? + ? n ? A n ? R ? ? R ? ? ? 0 1 0 0 0 0 ? (It should be noticed that the number of the states is still ? ve and this is just for the purpose of simplifying analysis). Obviously the above equation can also be put in the general state space equation ? X = AX + BU with the state variables ? v ? p ? ? X=? ? r ? , ? ?A ? R yp lp np 1 yr lr nr 0 ? (3. 9) (3. 10) the input/control variables U= the system matrix yv ? lv A=? ? nv 0 and the input matrix ? ? , ? y? 0 ? ? 0 ? (3. 11) (3. 12) y ? A ? l? A B=? ? n ? A 0 ? y? R l? R ? ? n ? R ? 0 (3. 13) For the lateral dynamics, another widely used choice of the state variables (American system) is to replace the lateral velocity v by the sideslip angle ? and keep all others. Remember that v (3. 14) Ue The relationships between these two representations are easy to identify. In some textbooks, primed derivatives, for example, Lp , Nr , so on, are used for state space representation of the lateral dynamics. The primed derivatives are the same as the concise small letter derivatives used in above and in Appendix 1. For stability augmentation systems, di? erent from the state space model of the longitudinal dynamics where only one input elevator is considered, there are two inputs in the lateral dynamic model, i. e. the aileron and rudder. 3. 2. TRANSIENT RESPONSE TO AILERON AND RUDDER Table 3. 1: Dimensional Derivatives– B747 jet Y(lb) L(ft. lb) N(ft. lb) v(ft/s) ? 1. 103 ? 103 ? 6. 885 ? 104 4. 790 ? 104 p(rad/s) 0 ? 7. 934 ? 106 ? 9. 809 ? 105 r(rad/sec) 0 7. 302 ? 106 ? 6. 590 ? 106 ? A (rad) 0 ? 2. 829 ? 103 7. 396 ? 101 ? R (rad) 1. 115 ? 105 2. 262 ? 103 ? 9. 607 ? 103 33 3. 2 3. 2. 1 Transient response to aileron and rudder Numerical example Consider the lateral dynamics of Boeing 747 under the same ? ight condition as in Section 2. 3. 1. The lateral aerodynamic derivatives are listed in Table 3. 1. Using the expression in Appendix 1, all the parameters in the state space model can be calculated, given by ? ? ? 0. 0558 0. 0 ? 774 32. 2 ? ?0. 003865 ? 0. 4342 0. 4136 0 ? ? A=? (3. 15) ? 0. 001086 ? 0. 006112 ? 0. 1458 0 ? 0 1 0 0 and 0. 0 ? ?0. 1431 B=? ? 0. 003741 0. 0 ? ? 5. 642 0. 1144 ? ? ? 0. 4859 ? 0. 0 (3. 16) Stability Issue ? 0. 0330 + 0. 9465i ? 0. 0330 ? 0. 9465i eig(A) = ? 0. 5625 ? 0. 0073 (3. 17) All the eigenvalues have negative real part hence the lateral dynamics of the Boeing 747 jet transport is stable. 3. 2. 2 Lateral response and transfer functions ? v p ? ?+B r ? ? State space model of lateral dynamics ? ? ? v ? ? p ? ? ? ? ? = A? ? r ? ? ? ? ? ?A ? R (3. 18) This is a typical Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) system. For an MIMO system like the lateral dynamics, similar to the longitudinal dynamics, its corresponding transfer function can be derived using the same technique introduced in Chapter 2. However, in this case the corresponding Laplace transform of the state space model, 34 CHAPTER 3. LATERAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROLS G(s) ? Rr? m is a complex function matrix which is referred as a transfer function matrix where m is the number of the input variables and r is the number of the output variables. The ijth element in the transfer function matrix de? nes the transfer function between the ith output and jth input, that is, Gyij (s) = u yi (s) . uj (s) (3. 19) For example, GpA (s) denotes the transfer function from the aileron, ? A , to the roll ? rate, p. Its corresponding transfer function matrix is given by ? ? ? ? v G? A (s) GvR (s) v(s) ? ? p(s) ? ? Gp (s) Gp (s) ? ?A (s) ? R ? ? ? ? ?A (3. 20) ? r(s) ? ? Gr (s) Gr (s) ? ?R (s) ? A ? R ? p ? (s) G? A (s) G? R hi(s) With the data of Boeing 747 lateral dynamics, these transfer functions can be found as ? 2. 896s2 ? 6. 542s ? 0. 6209 GvA (s) = 4 fps/rad (3. 21) ? s + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 ? 0. 1431s3 ? 0. 02727s2 ? 0. 1101s rad/s/rad, or deg/s/deg s4 + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 (3. 22) 0. 003741s3 + 0. 002708s2 + 0. 0001394s ? 0. 004534 GrA (s) = rad/s/rad, deg/s/deg ? s4 + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 (3. 23) ? 0. 1431s2 ? 0. 02727s ? 0. 1101 ? rad/rad, or deg/deg (3. 24) G? A (s) = 4 s + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 097s + 0. 003658 and GpA (s) = ? GvR (s) = ? 5. 642s3 + 379. 4s2 + 167. 5s ? 5. 917 fps/rad s4 + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 (3. 25) GpR (s) = ? 0. 1144s3 ? 0. 1991s2 ? 1. 365s rad/s/rad, or deg/s/deg s4 + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 (3. 26) ? 0. 4859s3 ? 0. 2321s2 ? 0. 008994s ? 0. 05632 rad/s/rad, or deg/s/deg s4 + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 (3. 27) 0. 1144s2 ? 0. 1991s ? 1. 365 rad/rad, or deg/deg (3. 28) s4 + 0. 6344s3 + 0. 9375s2 + 0. 5097s + 0. 003658 GrR (s) = ? G? R (s) = ? The denominator polynomial of the transfer functions can be factorised as (s + 0. 613)(s + 0. 007274)(s2 + 0. 06578s + 0. 896) (3. 29) 3. 3. REDUCED ORDER MODELS 35 It has one large real root, -0. 5 613, one small real root, -0. 0073 (very close to origin) and a pair of complex roots (-0. 0330 + 0. 9465i, -0. 0330 0. 9465i). For most of the aircraft, the denominator polynomial of the lateral dynamics can be factorized as above, ie. , with two real roots and a pair of complex roots. That is, 2 (s + 1/Ts )(s + 1/Tr )(s2 + 2? d ? d s + ? d ) = 0 (3. 30) where Ts Tr is the spiral time constant (for spiral mode), Tr is the roll subsidence time constant (for roll subsidence), and ? d , ? are damping ratio and natural frequency of Dutch roll mode. For Boeing 747, from the eigenvalues or the roots, these parameters are calculated as: Spiral time constant Ts = 1/0. 007274 = 137(sec); (3. 31) Roll subsidence time constant Tr = 1/0. 5613 = 1. 78(sec) and Dutch roll natural frequency and damping ratio ? d = 0. 95(rad/sec), ? d = 0. 06578 = 0. 0347 2? d (3. 33) (3. 32) The basic ? ight condition is steady symmetric ? ight, in which all the lateral variables ? , p, r, ? are identically zero . Unlike the elevator, the lateral controls are not used individually to produce changes in steady state. That is because the steady state values of ? , p, r, ? that result from a constant ? A and ? R are not of interest as a useful ? ight condition. Successful movement in the lateral channel, in general, should be the combination of aileron and rudder. In view of this, the impulse response, rather than step response used in the lateral study, is employed in investigating the lateral response to the controls. This can be considered as an idealised situation that the control surface has a sudden move and then back to its normal position, or the recovering period of an airplane deviated from its steady ? ght state due to disturbances. The impulse lateral responses of Boeing 747 under unit aileron and rudder impulse action are shown in Figure 3. 1 and 3. 2 respectively. As seen in the response, the roll subsidence dies away very quickly and mainly has the in? uence at the beginning of the response. The spiral mode has a large time constant and takes quite long time to respond. The Dutch rol l mode is quite poorly damped and the oscillation caused by the Dutch roll dominates the whole lateral response to the control surfaces. 3. 3 Reduced order models Although as shown in the above ? gures, there are di? rent modes in the lateral dynamics, these modes interact each other and have a strong coupling between them. In general, the approximation of these models is not as accuracy as that in the longitudinal dynamics. However to simplify analysis and design in Flight Control Systems, reduced order models are still useful in an initial stage. It is suggested that the full lateral dynamic model should be used to verify the design based on reduced order models. 36 CHAPTER 3. LATERAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROLS Lateral response to impluse aileron deflection 0. 1 Lateral velocity (f/s) 0. 05 0 ? 0. 05 ? 0. 1 ? 0. 5 0 10 20 30 Time(s) 40 50 60 0. 05 Roll rate (deg/sec) 0 ? 0. 05 ? 0. 1 ? 0. 15 0 x 10 ?3 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 5 Yaw rate(deg/sec) 0 ? 5 ? 10 ? 15 0 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 0 Roll angle (deg) ? 0. 05 ? 0. 1 ? 0. 15 ? 0. 2 ? 0. 25 0 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 Figure 3. 1: Boeing 747-100 lateral response to aileron 3. 3. REDUCED ORDER MODELS 37 Lateral response to unit impluse rudder deflection 10 Lateral velocity (f/s) 5 0 ? 5 ? 10 0 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 2 Roll rate (deg) 1 0 ? 1 ? 2 0 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 0. 4 Yaw rate (deg) 0. 2 0 ? 0. 2 ? 0. 4 ? 0. 6 0 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 Roll angle (deg) 0 ? 1 ? 2 ? 3 ? 4 0 10 20 30 Time (s) 40 50 60 Figure 3. 2: Boeing 747-100 lateral response to Rudder 38 CHAPTER 3. LATERAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROLS 3. 3. 1 Roll subsidence Provided that the perturbation is small, the roll subsidence mode is observed to involve almost pure rolling motion with little coupling into sideslip and yaw. A reduced order model of the lateral-directional dynamics retaining only roll subsidence mode follows by removing the side force and yaw moment equations to give p = lp p + l? A ? A + l? R ? R ? (3. 34) If only the in? uence from aileron de? ction is concerned and assume that ? R = 0, taking Laplace transform on Eq. (3. 34) obtains the transfer function p(s) l ? A kp = = ? A s ? lp s + 1/Tr where the gain kp = l? A and the time constant Tr = 1 Ix Iz ? Ixz =? lp Iz Lp + Ixz Np (3. 36) (3. 37) (3. 35) Since Ix Ixz and Iz Ixz , then equation (3. 37) can be further simpli? ed to give the classical approximation expression for the roll mode time constant Tr = ? Ix Lp (3. 38) For the Boeing 747, the roll subsidence estimated by the ? rst order roll subsidence approximation is 0. 183e + 8 Tr = ? = 2. 3sec. (3. 39) ? 7. 934e + 6 It is close to the real value, 1. sec, given by the full lateral model. 3. 3. 2 Spiral mode approximation As shown in the Boeing 747 lateral response to the control surface, the spiral mode is very slow to develop. It is usual to assume that the motion variables v, p, r are quasi-steady relative to the time scale of the mode. Hence p = v = r = 0 and the ? ? ? lateral dyna mics can be written as ? ? ? 0 yv ? 0 ? ? lv ? ? ? ? 0 ? = ? nv ? 0 ? yp lp np 1 yr lr nr 0 y? v 0 p 0 r 0 ? ? y? A ? ? l ? A ? +? ? ? n ? A 0 ? ? y ? R l? R ? ? n ? R ? 0 ?A ? R (3. 40) If only the spiral mode time constant is concerned, the unforced equation can be used. After solving the ? rst and third algebraic equations to yield v and r, Eq. (3. 40) reduces to lp nr ? l n l np ? lp n 0 p yv lr nv ? lr np + yp + yr lv nv ? lv nv y? v r r r (3. 41) ? = ? ? 1 0 3. 3. REDUCED ORDER MODELS 39 Since the terms involving in yv and yp are assumed to be insigni? cantly small compared to the term involving yr , the above expression for the spiral mode can be further simpli? ed as ? y? (lr nv ? lv nr ) ? = 0 ? + (3. 42) yr (lv np ? lp nv ) Therefore the time constant of the spiral mode can be estimated by Ts = yr (lv np ? lp nv ) y? (lr nv ? lv nr ) (3. 43) Using the aerodynamic derivatives of Boeing 747, the estimated spiral mode time constant is obtained as Ts = 105. 7(sec) (3. 44) 3. 3. 3 Dutch roll ? p=p=? =? =0 ? v ? r ? = yv nv yr nr v r + 0 n ? A y? R n ? R ? A ? R (3. 45) (3. 46) Assumptions: From the state space model (3. 46), the transfer functions from the aileron or rudder to the lateral velocity or roll rate can be derived. For Boeing 747, the relevant transfer functions are given by GvA (s) = ? GrA (s) = ? GvR (s) = ? GrR (s) = ? ?2. 8955 s2 + 0. 2013s + 0. 8477 0. 003741(s + 0. 05579) s2 + 0. 2013s + 0. 8477 s2 5. 642(s + 66. 8) + 0. 013s + 0. 8477 (3. 47) (3. 48) (3. 49) (3. 50) ?0. 4859(s + 0. 04319) s2 + 0. 2013s + 0. 8477 From this 2nd order reduced model, the damping ratio and natural frequency are estimated as 0. 1093 and 0. 92 rad/sec. 3. 3. 4 Three degrees of freedom approximation Assume that the following items are small and negligible: 1). The term due to gravity, g? 2). Rolling acceleration due to yaw rate, lr r 3). Yawing acceleration as a result of roll rate, np p Third order Dutch roll approximation is given by ? ? ? ? ? ? v ? yv yp yr v 0 y ? R ? p ? = ? lv lp 0 ? ? p ? + ? l? A l? R ? ? r ? nv 0 nr r n? A n? R ?A ? R (3. 51) 40 CHAPTER 3. LATERAL RESPONSE TO THE CONTROLS For Boeing 747, the corresponding transfer functions are obtained as GvA (s) = ? GpA (s) = ? GrA (s) = ? ?2. 8955(s + 0. 6681) (s + 0. 4511)(s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548) ? 0. 1431(s2 + 0. 1905s + 0. 7691) (s + 0. 4511)(s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548) 0. 003741(s + 0. 6681)(s + 0. 05579) (s + 0. 4511)(s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548) 5. 642(s + 0. 4345)(s + 66. 8) (s + 0. 4511)(s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548) 0. 1144(s ? 4. 432)(s + 2. 691) (s + 0. 4511)(s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548) ? 0. 4859(s + 0. 4351)(s + 0. 04254) (s + 0. 4511)(s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548) (3. 52) 3. 53) (3. 54) and GvR (s) = ? GpR (s) = ? GrR (s) = ? (3. 55) (3. 56) (3. 57) The poles corresponding to the Dutch roll mode are given by the roots of s2 + 0. 1833s + 0. 8548 = 0. Its damping ratio and natural frequency are 0. 0995 and 0. 921 rad/sec. Compared with the values given by the second order Dutch roll approximation, i. e. , 0. 1093 and 0. 92 rad/sec, they are a little bit closer to the true damping ratio ? d = 0. 0347 and the natural frequency ? d = 0. 95 (rad/sec) but the estimation of the damping ratio still has quite poor accuracy. 3. 3. 5 Re-formulation of the lateral dynamics The lateral dynamic model can be re-formulated to emphasise the structure of the reduced order model. ? ? v ? yv ? r ? ? nv ? ? ? ? ? p ? = ? lv ? ? 0 ? ? yr nr lr 0 yp np lp 1 g v 0 r 0 p 0 ? ? 0 ? ? n ? A ? +? ? ? l? A 0 ? ? y? R n ? R ? ? l? R ? 0 ? A ? R (3. 58) The system matrix A can be partitioned as A= Directional e? ects Directional/roll coupling e? ects Roll/directional coupling e? ects Lateral or roll e? ects (3. 59) Tutorial 2 1. Using the data of Boeing 747-100 at Case II, form the state space model of the lateral dynamics of the aircraft at this ? ight condition. When the sideslip angle and roll angle are of interest, ? nd the output equation. 2. Find the second order Dutch roll reduced model of this airplane. Derive the transfer function from the rudder to the yaw rate based on this reduced order model. 3. 3. REDUCED ORDER MODELS 41 3. Using MATLAB, assess the approximation of this reduced order model based on time response, and the damping ratio and natural frequency of the Dutch roll mode. 4. Based on the third order reduced model in (3. 51), ? nd the transfer function from the aileron to the roll rate under the assumption y? A = yp = 0.

Essay Sample on Alfred Lord Tennyson

Essay Sample on Alfred Lord Tennyson Today, Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poetry is widely known and appreciated, though this was not always the case. In his early years of writing his poems were criticized for content and style of writing. This strongly impacted Tennyson and caused him once to cease writing for nine years. Tennyson’s childhood influenced his writing and this is often seen in many of his poems. He was regarded as the chief representative of the Victorian age in poetry. He become Poet Laureate in 1850 and was appointed by Queen Victoria and served 42 years. Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poetry was greatly influenced by his early childhood, best friend and religious beliefs; while his rhyme scheme was traditional; his morbid style was not popular for his time. This melancholy style of writing and use of topics of moral and intellectual beliefs of his time were especially vulnerable for later critic. Tennyson’s life at home wasn’t always a happy one. His father, George, began tutoring Tennyson after four unhappy years of schooling. George tutored his sons in classical and modern languages. However, George, along with some of Tennyson’s brothers, suffered from bouts of epilepsy. One of Tennyson’s brother’s had violent quarrels with his father, one was confined to an insane asylum later in life and yet another became an opium addict. George often suffered from depression and his drinking led to him becoming violent, abusive and paranoid. â€Å"Tennyson’s grandfather appointed his uncle his heir and his father was placed in the ministry.† (The Victorian Web) This great difference in money between his own family and his aunt and uncle’s led Tennyson to worry about money the length of his life. In 1827 Tennyson left his home in hope of a better life. He followed two of his older brothers to Trinity College, Cambridge. The Tennyson brothers published â€Å"Poems by Two Brothers† in 1827 which won each of them university prizes for poetry and made the quite popular at Cambridge. Shortly after an undergraduate club, The Apostles, invited Tennyson to join. These people remained his friends throughout his life, but one member formed an unparalleled friendship with Tennyson. Arthur Henry Hallam, another brilliant Victorian, had the most influence on Tennyson. Hallam later became engaged to Emily Tennyson, which only brought the two friends closer together. Hallam died in 1833 from illness, this shocked Tennyson and this grief led to some of Tennyson’s best poetry. In Memoriam and â€Å"The Passing of Arthur are some of the poems Hallam is remembered in. This experience led Tennyson to explore his thoughts on faith, immortality, and the meaning of loss: â€Å"O life as futile, then, as frail! / O for thy voice to soothe and bless! / What hope of answer, or redress? / Behind the veil, behi nd the veil.† (Netpoets) Within other passages of the poem is a symbolic voyage ending in a ‘vision of Hallam as the poet’s muse.’ (Online Literature) Tennyson continued to look to Hallam for inspiration even after the friend had died. Throughout Tennyson’s life he fell in love with many women. One such woman was Emily Sellwood. Tennyson had met Sellwood in 1836 at her sister’s wedding and later that year became engaged to her. Tennyson soon published POEMS, which was met with bad reviews, which called his work â€Å"affected† and â€Å"obscure.† (Poets) Tennyson was hurt by the harsh reviews and discontinued writing for nine years. Once he lost his inheritance on a bad investment in 1840 Sellwood’s family called off the engagement. Later Tennyson’s POEMS in two volumes became a popular success and gained him much respect. With the publication of In Memoriam he became known as one of Britain’s most popular poets. He was selected Poet Laureate in succession to Wordsworth. (Poets) Once success had found Tennyson he married Sellwood. They had two sons, Hallam and Lionel. They remained married throughout the rest of Tennyson’s life. Tennyson’s style of writing was not widely accepted when he began writing. Most of his early poetry was said to be morbid and melancholy. This type of reaction discouraged Tennyson. Tennyson wasn’t widely praised until the release of his POEMS in two volumes. Tennyson often wrote of nature, death and regret. â€Å"Tears, Idle Tears† is an example of this. â€Å"In looking on the happy autumn-fields, And thinking of the days that are no more.† (Poets) Tennyson is in a beautiful, happy place, and yet he is only regretting not being in the past. Death is shown in â€Å"The Kraken† which is easily shown in the last line; â€Å"In roaring he shall rise and on the surface die.† There are many other examples for Tennyson’s less than lively poetry. Tennyson uses luring words in his poems. If a person didn’t know anything about poetry they might think that they were reading a love poem. He uses words that almost calm the reader, although they might be reading about death, or regret. His use of language is very appealing. Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poetry was greatly influenced by his environment. His father was a clergyman whom later in life experienced epilepsy and would fall into bouts of drinking and depression. His very close friend and brother-in-law Hallam died suddenly, leaving Tennyson stung and deeply saddened. His wife Emily Sellwood’s family cancelled their wedding when he lost his money, only to rearrange it when he became a well-known writer. In some part of each of Tennyson’s poems you will find an example of his life, or his feelings about his life and happenings. â€Å"T.S. Eliot has called him ‘the great master of metric as well as of melancholia’ and that that he possessed the finest ear of any English poet since Milton.† (Online Literature) Despite Tennyson’s family history with health problems he lived a long life and died at the 83 on October 6, 1892. You can order a custom essay, term paper, research paper, thesis or dissertation on   Alfred Lord Tennyson topics at our professional custom essay writing service which provides students with custom papers written by highly qualified academic writers. High quality and no plagiarism guarantee! Get professional essay writing help at an affordable cost.

CROSS CULTURAL NEGOTIATION MGT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

CROSS CULTURAL NEGOTIATION MGT - Essay Example Consideration of cultural values of other nations forms a very strong background upon which the operations of any international business can be based which the Americans did not consider in the first instance. Basically, consumer behaviour in most cases is influenced by various factors such as perception, needs, motives and attitudes and these in most cases are either directly or indirectly influenced by the individual’s cultural background (Kotler, Brown, Adam, Burton and Armstrong 2007). Against this backdrop, the four main differences between the cultures in United States and France will be explored according to the various cultural dimensions propagated by Hofstede in view of Trompenaars’ study which will attempt to highlight the major differences between them for the sake of easier understanding. This analysis will as well attempt to bring to light especially three mistakes that are believed to have been made by Disney Company during its stint while at the helm of Euro Disneyland. The study will finally attempt to analyse the lessons that could have been learnt by Disney Company with regards to the aspect of the need to consider diversity in any such kind of a deal. Culture influences the attitude of the consumers which in turn influence their attitude towards something as aptly highlighted by Hofstede’s cultural dimensions which explicitly illustrate mainly four different dimensions between the cultures of United States and France (Kotler, Brown, Adam, Burton and Armstrong 2007). According to McShane and Travaglione, (2007), the degree to which people accept and believe that there is inequality of the distribution of power in their respective societies is referred to as power distance. Comparatively, the United States’ power distance is 40 points as shown in Table 1, which by any standard is lower at the world level (Thomas, 2003). Given a situation

The Rule of Law in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Rule of Law in China - Essay Example I venture to guess rational analysis is ill-suited to the investigation of value matters which are, after all, more instinctual than cognitive, and more emotive than logical. (Wong 12) Â  The laws of a particular country Wong says, are informed by its values, and its values are characteristic of the entire course of its history. America appears to have found many of its values, character traits, and individualism in its revolution against Britain, and in its Protestant background, while Chinas more communitarian consciousness dates back to Confucius himself. (Wong 13) Â  If this is to accuse America of linear thinking when it comes to law, Wong draws the contrast with China even deeper when he adds that Chinas loyalty to its past is not so much or only a preservation or continuation of that past through time. It is more than Imperial China, and Confucius before her, was observant and appreciative of a kind of indeterminacy and immediacy coloring human legal affairs, a very un-judicial mixing of the winds and the currents that are seated only in "human nature ("renin") and heavenly providence ("timing").." (Wong 18) Â  Thus the system of law and its associated court and police processes in China arises in a country and a people "with no history and tradition of democracy, privacy, and individualism." (Wong 20) There is instead "Qing," "Li" and "Fa" or QLF, dating from Imperial China and signifying a complex, spiritual, and markedly oriental way of understanding and approaching life which cannot be detailed here except to say that a very significant part of it is an emphasis on rites that reflect the "essence of human nature." (Wong 29) The knowledge and understanding of these presumably mystic rites and their connection with right conduct are cultivated in the individual all along by education and not by simply knowing the law.

Purchasing power parity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Purchasing power parity - Essay Example bsolute purchasing power parity to distinguish it from a related theory relative purchasing power parity, which predicts the relationship between the two countries relative inflation rates and the change in the exchange rate of their currencies (Wikipedia, 2006). It is important in international economics for at least three reasons. First, it provides a particularly simple theory of exchange rate determination: it predicts that, if the relative price of two currencies is flexible, then it will adjust to equal the ratio of their price levels. Second, if this kind of adjustment does not take place, the ratio of price levels can nonetheless provide a reference point against which the current exchange rate can be deemed to be "under- or over-valued" relative to its PPP level. Finally, irrespective of whether PPP will ever occur in practice, deviations from it must be taken into account in making international and interregional comparisons of real income (Neary, 2004). The theory assumes that the actions of importers and exporters, motivated by cross country price differences, induces changes in the spot exchange rate. In another vein, PPP suggests that transactions on a countrys current account, affect the value of the exchange rate on the foreign exchange market. This contrast with the interest rate parity theory which assumes that the actions of investors, whose transactions are recorded on the capital account, induces changes in the exchange rate (Suranovic, 1999). Although earlier studies, like Froot and Rogoff (1995) had reported evidence of short run violations, many economists as Mc Donald (1996), Wu (1996) and others still hold the view that over the long run, relative price may move in proportion to the nominal exchange rate so that the real exchange rate will revert to its parity. Hence, it becomes important to test PPP as a long run relationship. PPP theory is based on an extension and variation of the "law of one price" as applied to the aggregate

Importance of Innovation for Human Waste Treatment

Importance of Innovation for Human Waste Treatment Yuyao Wu As Rio bay waters show, we badly need innovation in treating human wastes August 13, 2016 3.41am AEST http://theconversation.com/as-rio-bay-waters-show-we-badly-need-innovation-in-treating-human-wastes-63379 By referring the issue of poor water quality in the 2016 Rio Olympic water, Daniele Lantagne, an assistant Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering in Tufts University, demonstrates how series untreated water can pose threat to peoples health through the article. Lantagne also informs people to think highly of the issue of disposing untreated water, arguing that sewerage systems are needed to apply in our lives. Treating waste water and sewage is not only a problem happened in Rio, but also a problem happened worldwide. Therefore, technical and social innovation are not only needed for disposing contaminated water, but also the inevitable elements for the process of sustainability. The writer applies a logical tone to inform the readers that peoples health is exposed to danger if they live in an environment contaminated with human waste. the untreated water causes 760000 children die from diarrhea per year worldwide and 162 million children under five suffer stunting, which is evidence by sanitation provision (2007). The writer makes her argument seem more reliable by the use of reliable evidence. It is sorrowful to accept that a large number of children die each year because of the contaminated water. Through the evidence, we can know that the situation is serious or might be more serious if we take no measure to treat the water before disposal. Thus, it highlights how urgent and necessary we need to improve sanitation faculties in order to reverse the health threats. Furthermore, Lantagne states that apply the waste treatment in life can increase the quality of life. The writer uses the fact that the project of the sewerage system in United States achieves significant success in providing treated and safe water to households. Indeed, in our daily life, water is the basic need for every human-being. The quality of water has a direct impact on human health. Therefore, we realise how vital roles the sewerage systems play in our lives. However, Lantagne argues that in reality, it is hardly to keep using sewerage systems, septic tanks and latrines because of the financial reason and rapidly population growth. Through listing the limitation of sewerage systems, septic tanks and latrines, Lantagne makes her point seem more objective and more considerable. Although the limitation of sewerage systems exists, we still need to use sewerage system to dispose untreated water. Lantagne consummates her argument by listing three examples for the further process of treating human waste, which are community mobilization strategies, Systems-based and social enterprise services. However, nowadays, it is not enough to provide the solution to treat the untreated water. Beforehand, sense of environmental consciousness is needed to be ingrained in peoples mind. Otherwise, lack senses of environmental consciousness will be one of the most obvious barriers to stop people to care, think and work out the solution for disposing contaminate d water or other environmental issues. Overall, the writer offers her opinions based on evidence and fact in a reasonable and logical tone, which makes her arguments seem more valid. The points raised by the writer is worth to reconsider as treating water before disposal is one of the most serious environmental issues. We need to know how serious health consequences we are suffering due to the contaminated water before we realize how urgent we need to apply the sewerage system in life. Besides, the senses of environmental consciousness are the basic knowledge impels us to work out the solution for environmental issues. References; http://theconversation.com/as-rio-bay-waters-show-we-badly-need-innovation-in-treating-human-wastes-63379

Essay --

Corporations are contributing to the â€Å"going green† epidemic. Going green means to pursue knowledge and practices that lead to more environmentally friendly and ecologically responsible decisions and lifestyles (Middletown Thrall Library, 2008). There are several pros and cons that organizations experience when deciding to develop â€Å"green† strategies, therefore the choice must be made carefully to decide whether or not it would be advantageous to their basis. One of the most obvious of reasons to become a â€Å"green† company is the cost benefit. The operating and material costs that are required for businesses are constantly increasing, therefore in order to become more cost efficient, and businesses are recycling more thus reducing productivity costs. With business being able to reduce waste and recycle more of their used goods, they can eliminate the costs it takes to eliminate those resources or to even store them. Eco-friendly policies also help to attract new talent. According to Lindsey Pollak, author of "Getting From College to Career, "students are looking to work for companies that care about the environment (Roff, 2007). Organizations can benefit from going green by reducing their energy bills as well. Energy bill reduction can come from utilizing high-efficiency bulbs in lighting. By installing lighting sensors, dimmers and a reflective roof, semiconductor maker Texas Instruments Inc. cut lighting energy at its of fice building in Richardson, Texas, by 80% (Roff, 2007). On the other hand, there are other disadvantages related to costs when a business decides to go green. For example, sometimes the costs to install and maintain â€Å"green† materials may not offset the savings in the long or short run. In the event that th... ...same point: when environmentally friendly practices complement the goal of achieving fiscal soundness and greater profits, companies are more than willing to go green (Gorbett, Salvaterra & Skiba, p.2 2005).† In my opinion, the factor that would have the greatest bearing on the company’s decision to go green is the cost savings because all other rationales would follow based on if the company felt that the savings would be costs effective in the long run. The organization would not attract any investors or many investors if they feel as thought their investments would be wasted on trying to incorporate a â€Å"green† working environment, then the company would experience a low consumer market as a result. They would be spending more of the investors money on trying to remain â€Å"green† and losing out on the innovative ideas that competitors would have the advantage over.